31. Survival selection causes __________ effects, in which the relative health of various groups changes with age. a. actuarial b. evolutionary c. cross-over d. pseudo-aging 32. All theories of aging start with the assumption that aging is a. programmed. b. a wear-and-tear process. c. a normal biological process. d. not universal or inevitable. 33. _______ theories describe the nature of the internal alarm clock that regulates aging. a. Programmed aging b. Aging as random events c. Aging as accidental events d. Cross-linkage theories 34. According to the _________ theory of aging, a weakened ability to fight infections makes us more susceptible to disease over time with antibodies even being produced against normal body proteins, resulting in diseases, such as some forms of arthritis. a. immunological b. endocrine c. cross-linkage d. free radical 35. Which of the following is considered a programmed aging theory? a. immunological theory b. DNA damage theory c. cross-linkage theory d. free radical theory 36. According to the _________ theory of aging, aging is blamed on declining levels of hormones that regulate growth, metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction. a. genetic b. endocrine c. cross-linkage d. free radical 37. The fact that women who give birth late in life or reach menopause later actually live longer on the average seems to support the _________ theory of aging. a. genetic b. endocrine c. cross-linkage d. free radical 38. According to the _________ theory of aging, aging results from a sequence of genes that switch on and switch off during our lives. a. genetic b. DNA damage c. cross-linkage d. free radical 39. Some of the _________ theories of aging take the view that “death genes†switch on at certain points in time, causing massive cell death; others assume that helpful genes switch off after midlife, just as those that produce hair pigments do. a. genetic b. DNA damage c. cross-linkage d. free radical 40. The number of cell divisions that occur before a cell dies is referred to as the _______ limit. a. free radical b. Bortagelli c. Hayflick d. polymere